### The History of Sumer
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Writer AndyKim
Hit 1,574 Hit
Date 25-01-17 16:11
Content
### The History of Sumer
#### Introduction
Sumer, often regarded as one of the world's earliest civilizations, emerged in the southern part of Mesopotamia, in what is now modern-day Iraq. Flourishing between approximately 4500 BCE and 1900 BCE, Sumer laid the foundational structures for subsequent civilizations through its advancements in writing, governance, architecture, and various aspects of culture and society.
#### Geographic Location
Sumer was situated in the fertile plains between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, an area historically known as Mesopotamia, meaning "land between rivers." This region, often referred to as the "Cradle of Civilization," provided rich soil ideal for agriculture, which was crucial for the sustenance and growth of Sumerian cities.
#### Time Period
Sumerian history is typically divided into several periods:
1. **Ubaid Period (c. 6500–3800 BCE):** The precursor to Sumer, characterized by the establishment of the first villages and agricultural communities.
2. **Uruk Period (c. 4000–3100 BCE):** Marked by the rise of the city of Uruk, significant urbanization, and the invention of writing (cuneiform).
3. **Early Dynastic Period (c. 2900–2350 BCE):** Features the development of city-states and the emergence of powerful rulers.
4. **Akkadian and Post-Akkadian Periods (c. 2334–2000 BCE):** Includes the brief dominance of the Akkadian Empire and the resurgence of Sumerian culture afterward.
#### Society and Culture
Sumerian society was hierarchical, with a clear distinction between the ruling class, priests, merchants, artisans, and farmers. The city-states were each governed by a king, often seen as a representative of the gods on Earth. Sumerians placed significant emphasis on education and literacy, as evidenced by the proliferation of cuneiform tablets.
Culturally, Sumerians made substantial contributions in literature, law, and the arts. The "Epic of Gilgamesh," one of the earliest known literary works, originated in this civilization. Sumerian art included intricate carvings, statues, and cylinder seals used to mark property and authenticate documents.
#### Government and City-States
Sumer was not a unified empire but rather a collection of independent city-states, each centered around a major city such as Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Eridu, and Nippur. These city-states were often in competition for resources, trade dominance, and political power. Governance typically involved a combination of monarchy and priestly leadership, with the king overseeing both secular and religious affairs.
Each city-state had a ziggurat, a massive terraced structure that served as a temple complex, symbolizing the city's wealth and the deity it worshipped. The political landscape was dynamic, with periods of conflict and alliances shaping the region's history.
#### Economy and Technology
The Sumerian economy was primarily agrarian, relying on irrigation to manage the unpredictable rivers for farming. Key crops included barley, dates, and various vegetables. Trade was vital, both within Mesopotamia and with neighboring regions such as the Indus Valley, Anatolia, and the Arabian Peninsula. Sumerians traded goods like textiles, metals, and crafted items.
Technologically, Sumerians were pioneers in several fields:
- **Writing:** The invention of cuneiform script around 3400 BCE revolutionized record-keeping, administration, and literature.
- **Metallurgy:** Advances in working with metals like copper and bronze enabled the creation of tools, weapons, and artistic objects.
- **Mathematics and Astronomy:** They developed a numerical system based on 60, which influences our timekeeping today (60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour). Their astronomical observations laid the groundwork for future studies.
#### Religion and Mythology
Religion was integral to Sumerian life, with a pantheon of gods and goddesses governing various aspects of the natural world and human existence. Major deities included Anu (the sky god), Enlil (god of air), Inanna (goddess of love and war), and Enki (god of water and wisdom). Each city-state typically worshipped its patron deity.
Temples and ziggurats were the centers of religious activity, where priests conducted rituals, offerings, and festivals. Mythological narratives, such as the "Enuma Elish" (the creation epic) and the "Epic of Gilgamesh," reflect Sumerian beliefs about creation, mortality, and the divine.
#### Achievements
1. **Writing System (Cuneiform):** Perhaps the most significant Sumerian contribution, cuneiform started as a system of pictographs and evolved into a complex script used for various administrative, literary, and legal purposes.
2. **Architecture and Urban Planning:** Sumerians built impressive structures, including the ziggurats, which served both religious and administrative functions. Their cities were well-planned, with streets, canals, and public buildings.
3. **Legal Codes:** Early legal systems, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu, laid the groundwork for later legal traditions by establishing laws and penalties.
4. **Advancements in Agriculture:** Innovations in irrigation and farming techniques increased agricultural productivity, supporting population growth and urbanization.
5. **Wheel and Plow:** Technological advancements like the invention of the wheel and the plow revolutionized transportation and agriculture, respectively.
#### Decline and Legacy
Sumer's decline began around 2000 BCE due to a combination of factors, including environmental changes like salinization of the soil, which reduced agricultural yields, internal conflicts among city-states, and invasions by external groups such as the Akkadians and later the Amorites. By around 1900 BCE, Sumerian culture had been significantly absorbed into the broader Mesopotamian civilizations, particularly under the Babylonian and Assyrian Empires.
Despite its decline, Sumer's legacy is profound. Its innovations in writing, law, and urban development influenced subsequent civilizations in Mesopotamia and beyond. The Sumerian language and literary works, such as the "Epic of Gilgamesh," have been studied for millennia, providing invaluable insights into early human society and thought.
### Conclusion
Sumer stands as a testament to human ingenuity and the ability to create complex societies from the ground up. Its contributions to writing, governance, technology, and culture have left an indelible mark on world history, shaping the development of civilizations that followed and continuing to be a subject of fascination and study today.
#### Introduction
Sumer, often regarded as one of the world's earliest civilizations, emerged in the southern part of Mesopotamia, in what is now modern-day Iraq. Flourishing between approximately 4500 BCE and 1900 BCE, Sumer laid the foundational structures for subsequent civilizations through its advancements in writing, governance, architecture, and various aspects of culture and society.
#### Geographic Location
Sumer was situated in the fertile plains between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, an area historically known as Mesopotamia, meaning "land between rivers." This region, often referred to as the "Cradle of Civilization," provided rich soil ideal for agriculture, which was crucial for the sustenance and growth of Sumerian cities.
#### Time Period
Sumerian history is typically divided into several periods:
1. **Ubaid Period (c. 6500–3800 BCE):** The precursor to Sumer, characterized by the establishment of the first villages and agricultural communities.
2. **Uruk Period (c. 4000–3100 BCE):** Marked by the rise of the city of Uruk, significant urbanization, and the invention of writing (cuneiform).
3. **Early Dynastic Period (c. 2900–2350 BCE):** Features the development of city-states and the emergence of powerful rulers.
4. **Akkadian and Post-Akkadian Periods (c. 2334–2000 BCE):** Includes the brief dominance of the Akkadian Empire and the resurgence of Sumerian culture afterward.
#### Society and Culture
Sumerian society was hierarchical, with a clear distinction between the ruling class, priests, merchants, artisans, and farmers. The city-states were each governed by a king, often seen as a representative of the gods on Earth. Sumerians placed significant emphasis on education and literacy, as evidenced by the proliferation of cuneiform tablets.
Culturally, Sumerians made substantial contributions in literature, law, and the arts. The "Epic of Gilgamesh," one of the earliest known literary works, originated in this civilization. Sumerian art included intricate carvings, statues, and cylinder seals used to mark property and authenticate documents.
#### Government and City-States
Sumer was not a unified empire but rather a collection of independent city-states, each centered around a major city such as Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Eridu, and Nippur. These city-states were often in competition for resources, trade dominance, and political power. Governance typically involved a combination of monarchy and priestly leadership, with the king overseeing both secular and religious affairs.
Each city-state had a ziggurat, a massive terraced structure that served as a temple complex, symbolizing the city's wealth and the deity it worshipped. The political landscape was dynamic, with periods of conflict and alliances shaping the region's history.
#### Economy and Technology
The Sumerian economy was primarily agrarian, relying on irrigation to manage the unpredictable rivers for farming. Key crops included barley, dates, and various vegetables. Trade was vital, both within Mesopotamia and with neighboring regions such as the Indus Valley, Anatolia, and the Arabian Peninsula. Sumerians traded goods like textiles, metals, and crafted items.
Technologically, Sumerians were pioneers in several fields:
- **Writing:** The invention of cuneiform script around 3400 BCE revolutionized record-keeping, administration, and literature.
- **Metallurgy:** Advances in working with metals like copper and bronze enabled the creation of tools, weapons, and artistic objects.
- **Mathematics and Astronomy:** They developed a numerical system based on 60, which influences our timekeeping today (60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour). Their astronomical observations laid the groundwork for future studies.
#### Religion and Mythology
Religion was integral to Sumerian life, with a pantheon of gods and goddesses governing various aspects of the natural world and human existence. Major deities included Anu (the sky god), Enlil (god of air), Inanna (goddess of love and war), and Enki (god of water and wisdom). Each city-state typically worshipped its patron deity.
Temples and ziggurats were the centers of religious activity, where priests conducted rituals, offerings, and festivals. Mythological narratives, such as the "Enuma Elish" (the creation epic) and the "Epic of Gilgamesh," reflect Sumerian beliefs about creation, mortality, and the divine.
#### Achievements
1. **Writing System (Cuneiform):** Perhaps the most significant Sumerian contribution, cuneiform started as a system of pictographs and evolved into a complex script used for various administrative, literary, and legal purposes.
2. **Architecture and Urban Planning:** Sumerians built impressive structures, including the ziggurats, which served both religious and administrative functions. Their cities were well-planned, with streets, canals, and public buildings.
3. **Legal Codes:** Early legal systems, such as the Code of Ur-Nammu, laid the groundwork for later legal traditions by establishing laws and penalties.
4. **Advancements in Agriculture:** Innovations in irrigation and farming techniques increased agricultural productivity, supporting population growth and urbanization.
5. **Wheel and Plow:** Technological advancements like the invention of the wheel and the plow revolutionized transportation and agriculture, respectively.
#### Decline and Legacy
Sumer's decline began around 2000 BCE due to a combination of factors, including environmental changes like salinization of the soil, which reduced agricultural yields, internal conflicts among city-states, and invasions by external groups such as the Akkadians and later the Amorites. By around 1900 BCE, Sumerian culture had been significantly absorbed into the broader Mesopotamian civilizations, particularly under the Babylonian and Assyrian Empires.
Despite its decline, Sumer's legacy is profound. Its innovations in writing, law, and urban development influenced subsequent civilizations in Mesopotamia and beyond. The Sumerian language and literary works, such as the "Epic of Gilgamesh," have been studied for millennia, providing invaluable insights into early human society and thought.
### Conclusion
Sumer stands as a testament to human ingenuity and the ability to create complex societies from the ground up. Its contributions to writing, governance, technology, and culture have left an indelible mark on world history, shaping the development of civilizations that followed and continuing to be a subject of fascination and study today.